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The Universal Principles of Islamic Art
Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies
16th May 2002
The religion of Islam permeates into every aspect of man’s life, leaving nothing untouched by the sacred. This, by extension, means that there is no differentiation between the sacred and the profane in the life of every Muslim. There is simply a hierarchy of being which has its roots in Divine Unity and which manifests itself at every level of existence. This sense of unity is most evident in the arts of the Islamic world.
Islamic art is synonymous with sacred art. It is an art which transmits a Divine message and transcends time and place. It draws its roots from the Spirit and manifests itself in our physical world.
If one has to define the essence of Islamic art it will be the religion of Islam itself which derives its identity from the concept of unity (tawhid). Although the religion of Islam does not set out a mode of artistic expression, every aspect of it contains within itself the possibility of visual and symbolic representation. The main influence on this artistic expression is the Koran, in fact the Koran through inscriptions, recitation and prayer sets the rhythm for the life of every Muslim.
However, there is an important paradox which should not be overlooked in that the Koran does not set a specific model for the form of Islamic art. Islamic art does not, as in the case of Christian art, depict episodes from the lives of the prophets, or as in Hinduism have a formal canon to interpret a particular cosmology through its architecture. There is no principle of composition to be found in the Koran which can form the framework of an artistic expression. Furthermore, Islamic art cannot draw its inspiration from the Divine law (shariah), which simply regulates the daily life of the Muslim community by setting limits and guidelines, it cannot be the source of artistic creativity.
Furthermore, one cannot simply attribute this expression of unity to ‘religious feeling’, since however intense an emotion may be it is not enough to inspire the overwhelming range and depth of this art. The root of this unity transcends the realm of emotion which is ‘necessarily vague and always fluctuating’. It is a much deeper ‘intellectual vision’ that is the basis of Islamic art. The term Intellect must be used in its original sense; the Intellect is the faculty in man that gives intuitive knowledge of the Absolute and timeless realities – it is thus on a much higher plane than reason. Intellect, or ‘al-’aql’ in Arabic, is the capacity to perceive the concept of Divine unity. The Islamic tradition teaches that man’s fundamental quality is being endowed with an Intellect capable of metaphysical knowledge and hence the expression of an Absolute Reality. This faculty of the Intellect is not only expressed through the gift of speech but also through artistic creation. It is this vertical axis which gives the process of work in craftsmanship a sacred dimension and a direct link with the higher levels of reality and the creative rhythms in nature. It is from this wisdom that Islamic art derives its sense of beauty.
If one understands the essence of Islamic art through this faculty of the Intellect then the creative principle of the Koran becomes evident. Titus Burkhardt explains that the relationship between the Koran and Islamic art; ‘must not be sought on the level of formal expression’ (Mirror of the Intellect, pp 229). He stresses that Islam does not derive its inspiration from the literal meaning or form of the Koran but from its ’formless essence’; primarily from the concept of unity (tawhid). The essence of at- tawhid is beyond words; it reveals itself in the Koran by sudden and discontinuous flashes. Striking the plane of the visual imagination, these flashes congeal into crystalline forms, and it is these forms in their turn that constitute the essence of Islamic art.’ (Mirror of the Intellect, pp 230 ).
The universal message of Islamic art draws its inspiration from both a physical and a metaphysical order both of which have their origin in the Truth of the Absolute.
On the level of the physical Islamic art seeks its fundamental principles from the laws of the natural world. These are the laws of the natural order of being which man has experienced on a daily basis since the beginning of time. Man, in Islam, is not the measure of all things. The Muslim artist acknowledges by his Islam – his submission to the Divine will – that God is the Supreme Artist. Thus the relationship between the Muslim and his surrounding space is one that is based on reverence and not arrogance. If he has to leave an imprint on this physical space then it must be done with humility and with no sense of defiance to the natural order of being.
On the level of metaphysics, Islamic art aspires to the highest principles. It acts as a bridge or vehicle to transmit the realm of heaven into our physical world. This metaphysical inspiration, however, cannot be fully explained in rational terms. Traditional art is a reminder of a higher state of being; it is a support for contemplation. All traditional art forms are representations of higher models. They are symbols on earth of the essence of the archetype which is in heaven. It is this contemplative nature of traditional Islamic art which removes it from the constraints of time and place. It is through the understanding of this fact that the contemporary artist can draw not only physical but also spiritual inspiration to form a basis for his art. These timeless values will truly provide the freedom from social constraints and psychological pre-occupation which every artist searches for in his work.
The language of Islamic art should not be perceived as solely transmitting an aesthetic message. It is a fact, however, that our contemporary perception of this art has been somewhat distorted. The qualitative nature of Islamic art has been relegated to the periphery and its quantitative character has become the sole means of understanding this art. The rational approach reduces all spiritual values to the human plane, explaining only the historical context of Islamic art with no reference to its most important aspect; its spiritual content.
Such a perception would limit our understanding to a purely outward appreciation limited to the sensory world. In fact the message of Islamic art is synonymous with every aspect of man’s life which has a physical reality but also a metaphysical principle which underlies this reality. This is reflected in Islamic spirituality by the Divine names Al-Zahir and Al-Batin. It is these two Divine characteristics / principles which maintain the equilibrium of the hidden and revealed character of Islamic art which by extension has an impact on our physical and spiritual levels of being. The language of Islamic art is a contemplative one and by nature contemplation is a spiritual activity.
The spiritual life has to begin with submission. The Islamic tradition teaches that without submission there can be no true understanding and without discipline there can be no flowering of the spirit which leads to true and essential knowledge. This is most evident in the relationship between the fundamental aspects of Islamic art which are geometry, biomorphic form or arabesque and calligraphy. Geometry is an objective manifestation of the principles of creation and forms the underlying framework for the visual expression of the path which leads from unity to multiplicity; arabesque or biomorphic forms, which symbolise virgin nature, and which interlace with and balance the geometric patterns would be meaningless and formless without the structure of the underlying geometry. Furthermore, both these art forms are the setting for the word of God and the calligraphy of the Koran. Art and architecture have always held a central role in the civilisation of Islam a role which encompasses the wide range of values which make up this civilisation. Although the art of calligraphy is always considered to be the highest form of Visual art in Islam, since it expresses the Divine word which is the essence of the Koran it is the art of architecture which encompasses the full range of disciplines and crafts which are identified with the Muslim world such as masonry, carpentry, mosaic work, stained glass, gypsum carving and also calligraphy. Architecture is the setting for the different disciplines of the arts and crafts of Islam it is the evidence that these arts and crafts do not exist for their own sake, but to embellish our everyday lives and environment.
The art and architecture of Islam is more than just an aesthetic or spatial experience; it represents a symbolic vision of a higher reality. Architecture, for instance, is the art of ordering space. When an architecture has its roots in a sacred tradition it extends this sense of order from physical space to an expression of a metaphysical order.
The decoration of Islamic architecture with calligraphy, geometric patterns and arabesque forms must not be perceived simply as surface decoration or the superficial application of patterns. This decoration must be seen as a fundamental element in the overall composition of the architecture. It is a manifestation of a higher order of being – it is cosmetic in the true sense of the word: "to make cosmic-like". The architect consciously reflects the forms, patterns and rhythms he sees around him in nature, thus confirming that his work does not stand separately but as part of God’s creation on earth.
Traditional Islamic architecture fully reflects this consciousness of the architect. There was never any attitude of conflict, defiance or conquest over the surrounding environment. This in Islamic architecture is seen in the curve of the dome, the fluid forms of vaults, the crenulations of the skyline and the recesses and protrusions of the walls which allow the building to interact gracefully with the surrounding space. Even the internal space of the building, the courtyard (metaphorically the heart of the building), was open to the sky symbolising the aspiration of the heart towards heaven.
The traditional architect’s aspiration towards heaven is reflected in his work through the lightening of the physical mass. This physical mass is embellished by techniques of decoration which make it invisible and draws attention to a plane of colour, geometric design and biomorphic form. This decoration must be seen as a manifestation of a higher order of being and not merely a superficial application of patterns.
However, the decoration of architecture is not the only means of reflecting Divine Unity, the form of construction also contains a language symbolic of this Unity. This is most evident in the architecture of mosques. For example, the single dome mosque which focuses on the geometry and symbolism of the dome to express the meeting of Heaven and Earth, while the hypostyle mosque concentrates on the harmonious repetition of the column and the arch to set the rhythm of contemplation for the worshippers.
The visual expression of this order of being is best represented through the discipline of geometry. This discipline is usually confused as an artistic style which it is not – it is the crystalline analysis of the working order of nature. Geometry is both quantitative and qualitative. Its quantitative dimension regulates the form and construction of architecture. Its qualitative nature sets the proportions of architectural form and represents an expression of the order of the universe which regulates the cycle of manifestation. The proportions of sacred geometry derive from the division of a circle (which is a symbol of the unity of being) by inscribed regular figures and therefore the proportions of sacred architecture have their root in the symbolic source which contains all the possibilities of existence. Not only are the forms of geometry related to heaven and earth respectively, but the instruments that are used to draw them, that is the compass and the square, have the same significance. The craftsman, by using his traditional tools, participates in a ritual which is symbolic of heaven and earth coming together.
The language of sacred geometry and symbolism are only truly relevant within the context of a sacred tradition since then they are set within a spiritual context. There is a general impression amongst contemporary Muslim artists that the ‘abstraction’ of their modern art is related to and even inspired by the symbolic nature of traditional Islamic art. To clarify this point one has to indicate that modern abstraction is merely an artistic mannerism or a technique of expression in which the technique overrides the real meaning of the art. Islamic art is truly abstract because on the one hand it conveys concepts which cannot be expressed through mere physical form, and on the other it understands and fulfills the meaning of the symbolism of form. Form which exists on the physical level has limits which are constricted by time and space. However, physical form also has an aspect of conveying the metaphysical and it is this aspect which imbues certain forms with a timeless quality. This ‘abstract’ interpretation of form, as seen in Islamic art, raises the perception of reality from the physical realm. It encourages a contemplative state of mind and a perception, through the language of symbolism, of ‘unity in multiplicity and multiplicity in unity ‘. The language of symbolism is the threshold between the physical and the metaphysical. An understanding of the symbolism of form overwhelms the individuality of the artist without suppressing his creative instinct; it stretches his mode of expression to the realm of metaphysics.
Although the content of Islamic art aspires to express the highest principles, the actual means of representation are quite defined. One of the most commonly discussed features of Islamic art has always been the prohibition of the portrayal of human figures. This needs to be explained further.In western art, through the influence of the Greek and Christian civilisations, iconography or the portrayal of the image of man occupies a central position ( Jesus is the word made flesh ; icons are central to christian art). Islamic art takes quite a different view:
‘let us not forget that the image of man is always the image that man conceives of himself. The image bears back on its author, who thus never quite frees himself from the spell it casts upon him. The whole course of European art, with its increasingly accelerated phases of action and reaction, is mainly a dialogue between man and his image. Islam banished all this ambiguous play of psychological mirrors at an early stage, thus preserving the primordial dignity of man himself.’ ( Mirror of the Intellect, pp 212 & 213)
However, this must not be interpreted as a total ban on the depiction of the human figure. Firstly, Islam forbids the visual representation of God since the nature of God goes beyond any visual or liturgical interpretation. Secondly, Islam does tolerate the depiction of human form as long as it is not an attempt to create the illusion of living beings. These two principles are seen in the art of Islamic miniature painting which reached peaks of beauty and refinement, but which always remained on the periphery of the world of Islamic art and away from the liturgical domain which was dominated by the arts of architecture and calligraphy.
There might be a suggestion that the prohibition of images in Islamic art has created a void which had to be filled, and thus lead to the development of a more abstract aspect of this art, in particular geometrical patterns and arabesque forms. However, a true understanding of Islamic art would make it obvious that these art forms are not a compensation for the lack of images, but a positive contribution towards a perception of a higher reality than material form.
‘By transforming a surface into a tissue of colours or into a vibration of light and shadows, the ornament prevents the mind from fixing itself on any form that says ‘I’, as an image says ‘I’. The centre of an arabesque is everywhere and nowhere, each ‘affirmation’ being followed by its ‘negation’, and vice versa.’
(Mirror of the Intellect, pp 226)
The understanding that the craftsmen had of the higher reality of these arts and the constant reference to the world of heavenly archetypes for inspiration, instils in their work a sense of timeless beauty. The tiles of The Alhambra or the decorative patterns of the Taj Mahal still speak to us today in such a direct and striking manner – they penetrate our being to the depth of our soul and transport us to a higher realm. (One has to say that the same is true in the case of any truly traditional building whether it is a Hindu temple or Gothic cathedral) The experience of this art clearly educates us that beauty based on the sacred is universal and is the symbolic language of the soul.
However, one has to clarify the meaning of this universal beauty. It is always said that the perception of beauty is subjective and often personal. That might be true on a certain level; but in the traditional arts the form is only important in the sense that it is a reflection or interpretation of the Absolute Truth. What we see or understand as beauty is only universal because it reflects the principle of beauty in the realm of the archetypes. In Islam earthly beauty is only understood to be the reflection and in a sense the extension of the Divine quality of Al Jamil. And yet the interpretation of this quality of beauty cannot be arbitrary or left to personal taste. Every traditional or sacred art form is based on certain principles and canons which relate to the spiritual message of the tradition.
These can be summarised in three main guidelines which are not based on the personal expression of the artist, but on the individual’s interpretation of a universal principle.
Firstly, the nobility of content. Sacred art has to have its roots in a spiritual condition, apart from which it cannot be considered as sacred. The content of the art has to directly relate to a spiritual context which must be represented according to a clear canonical model.
Secondly, a purity of form which in traditional art is not simply related to material shape but is deeply related to the essence or soul of the physical form. The true meaning of form relates to the inspiration which is in the artist's mind/intellect which he transmits through his art. This is expressed through the harmony of composition and the clarity of line and colour which make up a language and technique that follow a clear hierarchy of expression.
Thirdly, a correct symbolism, which must transmit and express certain messages that are inherent in the spiritual nature of the image that is represented.
The Islamic tradition is based on a Divine revelation and therefore in its origin and principle transcends physical time. Furthermore, the application of this revelation is not restrained by physical location since it is a principle which provides guidelines that are always contemporary to the time and relevant to the place. This is most obvious in the realm of the arts of Islam which thrived for centuries over a vast area and were always of their time and answered the physical, social and cultural identity of the location.
The civilisation of Islam spread rapidly throughout an unknown world to the early Muslims. On a cultural level, this interaction was a positive catalyst for the flowering of various artistic expressions which were different depending on regional variations but still remained Islamic. The Muslim artists and craftsmen found no problem with accepting elements of these cultures and using them for artistic inspiration. It is only with time and the confidence gained from the establishment of their creative identity that these elements became Islamic in appearance. The case of the Hagia Sophia is one of the best examples we can draw on. The Muslims, on entering Constantinople, did not only instinctively realise that this was a sacred space in which they could pray but it was also a universal symbolic form which they could use in their mosques. The story of Ottoman architecture was thus of the constant fascination of their engineers with the Hagia Sophia and the gradual islamisation of this form culminating in the work of Sinan.
To really understand this acceptance and understanding of universal forms we have to get into what one might call the “traditional mind” – a mind which is based on the concept of the intellect mentioned earlier. This perception thus transcends worldly cultures, dynastic periods and regional variations to see the Universal Truth beyond physical form.
The dome, for instance, is one of the most symbolic elements in the architecture of Islam. The Prophet Muhammad related that as part of his ascent to heaven he saw a dome made of white mother- of - pearl and resting on the four corners of a square on which was inscribed the four parts of the Basmalah :
"In the name of God, the most Merciful, the most Compassionate".
The Prophet further described four rivers which flowed from the four sides of the square: a river of water, a river of milk, a river of honey and a river of wine. This vision not only represents the heavenly archetype of every domed building , but also indicates the universal relevance of the symbolism of architectural form as an expression of the order of the universe.
In terms of construction every dome requires a square base. This basis of structural solidity also contains a certain symbolism in that the geometric form of the square represents the stability and solidity of the Earth. Between the square base and the hemisphere of the dome itself there is a range of geometric forms, all based on developments of the octagon, which act as transitional shapes. These represent the planes of being that exist between the material and spiritual realms. The hemisphere of the dome itself represents undefined space, the cosmos – the realm of the Spirit.
The arts of Islam are undoubtedly one of the most recognised artistic forms in the world; and yet the principles on which these arts are based seem to be the most misunderstood. The root of this misunderstanding, or to be precise the lack of a full understanding of these principles, lies in two main areas. On the one hand we have an academic body which is fascinated by the subject but which denies the full scope of the art. While on the other hand, the Muslims themselves no longer understand or even appreciate the value of their art.
To fully understand what is meant by the term Islamic art we have to differentiate between two main perceptions of this art. The first being the one held by contemporary western academics and the second being how the Muslims of today view their art.
The modern orientalist or academic usually places the arts of Islam in the realm of archaeology or history – beautiful but ultimately inaccessible to us today. Any attempt at finding a contemporary means of expression is sceptically labeled as derivative and unoriginal.
However, if one understands this art from within then one realises that the label “derivative” should not be seen as negative since the main principle of every traditional art form is the return to the source and the re-tracing of the creative rhythms of manifestation. Islamic art is original only in the sense that it returns to the origin to seek its inspiration. This reaffirmation of the origin enables the artists to locate themselves at any point of time or place, since their reference point is always the source of all inspiration. . This orientation to the origin as a source of inspiration enables the artist to constantly trace the path between Truth and Beauty. Yet each path is absolutely unique and individual in its nature – as individual as the artist himself and as different as every endeavour he embarks upon.
The art critics’ lack of understanding or appreciation of the generating principle of Islamic art lies in the fact that their judgement of art is clouded by a preoccupation with its degree of originality, as well as being primarily interested in the individuality of the artist. This particular focus of attention is very distracting and somewhat misleading, since the concern with the individual artist and the psychological state of his times has very little to do with the spirit of Islamic art which fundamentally transcends the human experience.
‘The Muslim artist, by his very Islam, his ‘surrender’ to the Divine law, is always aware of the fact that it is not he who produces or invents beauty, but that a work of art is beautiful to the degree that it obeys the cosmic order and therefore reflects universal beauty’ (Mirror of the Intellect pp211)
It must be made clear that Islam considers the beauty of an art to be independent of the psychological state of the artist. The beauty of Islamic art does not rely on a subjective individualistic expression but remains objective and impersonal like that of nature.
‘For the Muslim mind, art reminds man of God when it is as impersonal as the laws that govern the movement of the heavenly spheres‘ (Mirror of the Intellect , pp 211)
The contemporary Muslim perception of Islamic art is also fundamentally flawed and incomplete, since it is based on a series of initiatives which go against the essential principles of this art. The fascination of the world of Islam with the modern world as represented by the West extended into the realm of the arts. Muslim artists and critics increasingly orientated their focus on modern western art in an attempt to break through the boundaries of cultural constraints and achieve a more universal means of expression. The intention was that a revolutionary art was needed to find a new means of artistic expression for the Muslim world. The flaw was that instead of looking at universal principles to achieve this wider expression they limited themselves to manifestos of the modernist art schools of Europe of the early 20th century. What resulted was second-rate copies of European paintings and a descent into a state of meaningless chaos in a very short period of time. Furthermore, the greatest irony was that instead of achieving this timeless mode of artistic expression. Arab art in particular seems to have got stuck in the 1970s.
However, the main negative impact that emerged from this blind adherence to a foreign ideology was the promotion of the European Renaissance concept of ‘the fine arts’. This was not limited to the application of certain styles and themes which were totally alien to the Islamic culture, but extended to the negative separation that occurred between the arts and the crafts of the Islamic world.
The integration of the arts and the crafts and the principles of beauty and function have always been fundamental principles in the culture of Islam. It is a fact that has always existed in the architecture, city planning and communal life of the Muslim world. The Muslim builders never distinguished between art, technology and the crafts - and the Arabic terms fan and sina’ah were used to combine these three disciplines.
Craftsmanship should be understood as a process and not a product. It is a process which includes social, economic, cultural and technical dimensions which inherently bind different aspects of the community together. Thus the destruction of craftsmanship does not only have a negative impact on the arts of a civilisation but also on its general well being. The work of the craftsman cannot be separated from the remaining aspects of his existence in the life of his community.
The proper understanding of the arts and architecture should be structured on the belief that the traditional Islamic arts are the product of a fulfilled human being. This can only be achieved by finding the right harmony between the hand, the heart and the mind. It is because of this understanding that we stress that an intellectual appreciation of the arts, or the individual expression of the artist is not enough. The true identity of the artist can only be realised when he fulfils his role as a craftsman, and his means of expression can only be truly valid when it derives from the principle of unity which underlies every aspect of the Muslim’s life.
Due to the essence of man’s nature any activity he undertakes will have to contain an aspect which conveys the realm of the Spirit. The term ritual can express secular activities which we perform every day. But there is also a sense of ritual containing a sacred dimension which links man’s activities to heaven. Traditional Islam always saw the world as a reflection of heaven. Everything that exists in this world, even in the realm of ideas and imagination, is a reflection of a divine archetype. In this sense the ritual of craftsmanship signifies the re-enactment on earth of a divine prototype.
The result of this separation of the arts and the crafts of a society has meant that the Muslim world relegated its traditional arts to the realm of folklore for the tourist trade, or to museum exhibitions where we end up knowing the precise size, date, colour and origin of these exquisite pieces of work but nothing of their essential / full meaning.
Our examples of traditional Islamic art today are mainly drawn from ancient works that are exhibited in museums. These works are not in their original context nor do they perform their true function. Islamic art was never made simply for exhibition, but to fulfil a certain function and convey a certain message within a particular context. There was never any distinction between the fine and applied arts in Islam. To a greater or lesser degree all the arts of the Islamic world conveyed the highest principles and values; at the same time they remained central elements in the everyday life of the Muslim.
However, one must not relegate traditional Islamic art forms to the museum; it remains a living art which is still practised, in spite of overwhelming obstacles, by craftsmen throughout the Islamic world. The work of contemporary craftsmen, which can be seen as a continuation in the same spirit of the ancient works exhibited in museums, represents more than just an education for our eyes, hands and mind; it has an impact on our soul. It not only inspires us by acting as a model for contemporary works of art, but also gives an insight into the perennial principles which the artist applied to make this art, values which still form a basis for a valid contemporary artistic expression. This kind of education requires a totally different appreciation from that of viewing so-called modern art, one that is not centred on the art as the work of an individual artist, but on the artist’s particular expression of a universal principle.
The aim of this paper is not only to present to a wide audience the universal nature of Islamic art, but to try to remind the Muslims in particular of the value of their artistic forms.
The Islamic world today is finally starting to recognise the true value of the rich heritage it has inherited. The issues of conservation and preservation have become the leading concerns of the day. Yet one has to ask the question; by what means do we preserve this inheritance and to what extent do we allow it to interact with our so called ‘modern lifestyles’? Is it enough to have a long distance and comfortable relationship with our past heritage which is a source of communal pride and identity, or do we listen to the uncomfortable questions it keeps asking us today? Is this form of preservation to be in the form of craft workshops and museums; which means a fundamental shift in our heritage from a central position in our everyday lives to the realm of ‘folklore’, ‘culture’ and ‘education’. The Muslims of today have to realise what their ancestors fully understood, that Islamic art is not concerned with individual self expression or models of representation but with an objective mode of contemplation of Divine unity.
Finally, what has to be reaffirmed is that the universal language of Islamic art simply echoes the message of Islam itself. This language is based on the consciousness of the Universal order of creation and submission to the Absolute Reality from which this order is created and to which it returns. Yet the real value of this universal language of Islamic art is not simply the fact that it is understood by all humanity, but that in principle it allows everyone a direct access to the Truth.